第13章万有引力

People have imagined traveling to the other planets of our solar system since they were discovered. But how can we best do this? The most efficient method was discovered in 1925 by Walter Hohmann, inspired by a popular science fiction novel of that time. The method is now called a Hohmann transfer. For the case of traveling between two circular orbits, the transfer is along a “transfer” ellipse that perfectly intercepts those orbits at the aphelion and perihelion of the ellipse. Figure 13.20 shows the case for a trip from Earth’s orbit to that of Mars. As before, the Sun is at the focus of the ellipse.

For any ellipse, the semi-major axis is defined as one-half the sum of the perihelion and the aphelion. In Figure 13.18, the semi-major axis is the distance from the origin to either side of the ellipse along the x-axis, or just one-half the longest axis (called the major axis). Hence, to travel from one circular orbit of radius $r_1$ to another circular orbit of radius $r_2$, the aphelion of the transfer ellipse will be equal to the value of the larger orbit, while the perihelion will be the smaller orbit. The semi-major axis, denoted a, is therefore given by $a=\frac{1}{2}\left(r_1+r_2\right)$.

Let’s take the case of traveling from Earth to Mars. For the moment, we ignore the planets and assume we are alone in Earth’s orbit and wish to move to Mars’ orbit. From Equation 13.9, the expression for total energy, we can see that the total energy for a spacecraft in the larger orbit (Mars) is greater (less negative) than that for the smaller orbit (Earth). To move onto the transfer ellipse from Earth’s orbit, we will need to increase our kinetic energy, that is, we need a velocity boost. The most efficient method is a very quick acceleration along the circular orbital path, which is also along the path of the ellipse at that point. (In fact, the acceleration should be instantaneous, such that the circular and elliptical orbits are congruent during the acceleration. In practice, the finite acceleration is short enough that the difference is not a significant consideration.) Once you have arrived at Mars orbit, you will need another velocity boost to move into that orbit, or you will stay on the elliptical orbit and simply fall back to perihelion where you started. For the return trip, you simply reverse the process with a retro-boost at each transfer point.

To make the move onto the transfer ellipse and then off again, we need to know each circular orbit velocity and the transfer orbit velocities at perihelion and aphelion. The velocity boost required is simply the difference between the circular orbit velocity and the elliptical orbit velocity at each point. We can find the circular orbital velocities from Equation 13.7. To determine the velocities for the ellipse, we state without proof (as it is beyond the scope of this course) that total energy for an elliptical orbit is

where $M_{\text{S}}$ is the mass of the Sun and a is the semi-major axis. Remarkably, this is the same as Equation 13.9 for circular orbits, but with the value of the semi-major axis replacing the orbital radius. Since we know the potential energy from Equation 13.4, we can find the kinetic energy and hence the velocity needed for each point on the ellipse. We leave it as a challenge problem to find those transfer velocities for an Earth-to-Mars trip.

We end this discussion by pointing out a few important details. First, we have not accounted for the gravitational potential energy due to Earth and Mars, or the mechanics of landing on Mars. In practice, that must be part of the calculations. Second, timing is everything. You do not want to arrive at the orbit of Mars to find out it isn’t there. We must leave Earth at precisely the correct time such that Mars will be at the aphelion of our transfer ellipse just as we arrive. That opportunity comes about every 2 years. And returning requires correct timing as well. The total trip would take just under 3 years! There are other options that provide for a faster transit, including a gravity assist flyby of Venus. But these other options come with an additional cost in energy and danger to the astronauts.