第13章万有引力

Using the precise data collected by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler carefully analyzed the positions in the sky of all the known planets and the Moon, plotting their positions at regular intervals of time. From this analysis, he formulated three laws, which we address in this section.

The prevailing view during the time of Kepler was that all planetary orbits were circular. The data for Mars presented the greatest challenge to this view and that eventually encouraged Kepler to give up the popular idea. Kepler’s first law states that every planet moves along an ellipse, with the Sun located at a focus of the ellipse. An ellipse is defined as the set of all points such that the sum of the distance from each point to two foci is a constant. Figure 13.17 shows an ellipse and describes a simple way to create it.

For elliptical orbits, the point of closest approach of a planet to the Sun is called the perihelion. It is labeled point A in Figure 13.17. The farthest point is the aphelion and is labeled point B in the figure. For the Moon’s orbit about Earth, those points are called the perigee and apogee, respectively.

An ellipse has several mathematical forms, but all are a specific case of the more general equation for conic sections. There are four different conic sections, all given by the equation

The variables r and $\theta$ are shown in Figure 13.18 in the case of an ellipse. The constants $\alpha$ and e are determined by the total energy and angular momentum of the satellite at a given point. The constant e is called the eccentricity. The values of $\alpha$ and e determine which of the four conic sections represents the path of the satellite.

One of the real triumphs of Newton’s law of universal gravitation, with the force proportional to the inverse of the distance squared, is that when it is combined with his second law, the solution for the path of any satellite is a conic section. Every path taken by m is one of the four conic sections: a circle or an ellipse for bound or closed orbits, or a parabola or hyperbola for unbounded or open orbits. These conic sections are shown in Figure 13.19.

If the total energy is negative, then $0\le e<1$, and Equation 13.10 represents a bound or closed orbit of either an ellipse or a circle, where $e=0$. [You can see from Equation 13.10 that for $e=0$, $r=\alpha$, and hence the radius is constant.] For ellipses, the eccentricity is related to how oblong the ellipse appears. A circle has zero eccentricity, whereas a very long, drawn-out ellipse has an eccentricity near one.

If the total energy is exactly zero, then $e=1$ and the path is a parabola. Recall that a satellite with zero total energy has exactly the escape velocity. (The parabola is formed only by slicing the cone parallel to the tangent line along the surface.) Finally, if the total energy is positive, then $e>1$ and the path is a hyperbola. These last two paths represent unbounded orbits, where m passes by M once and only once. This situation has been observed for several comets that approach the Sun and then travel away, never to return.

We have confined ourselves to the case in which the smaller mass (planet) orbits a much larger, and hence stationary, mass (Sun), but Equation 13.10 also applies to any two gravitationally interacting masses. Each mass traces out the exact same-shaped conic section as the other. That shape is determined by the total energy and angular momentum of the system, with the center of mass of the system located at the focus. The ratio of the dimensions of the two paths is the inverse of the ratio of their masses.